Exercise Dependence in Endurance Sports: Relationship to Sport Motivation and Exercise Identity
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v51.99218Keywords:
Exercise dependence, sport motivation, exercise identity, endurance sports, prevention.Abstract
This study aimed to analyze the interrelation of physical exercise (PE) dependence, sport motivation and identity with PE. The sample (375) comprised Spanish, practitioners of endurance PE (running, cycling, swimming, triathlon and others), 32% women and 67.5% men. The Exercise Dependence Scale (EDS-R) was used to analyze the participants' PE practice profile (dependent; symptomatic non-dependent and asymptomatic non-dependent), the Sport Motivation Scale was used to evaluate the level of each type of motivation and the PE Identification Scale was used to evaluate the level of identity of each participant related to PE. The next data analysis were performed: Kruskal-Wallis test with Bonferroni correction; Spearman's Rho; stepwise regression and multiple mediation models. 20% of the participants showed a dependent profile with the PE, 70.4% symptomatic non-dependents and 9.6% asymptomatic non-dependents. Dependents scored higher than the other profiles on all study variables. Significant differences were found in all the study variables, and dependence correlated positively and significantly with identification with the PE and sport motivation. Likewise, sport motivation was a mediator between identity with the PE and dependence on the PE. Identifying and studying the sport motivation and identity with the PE of each subject would be of interest for the development of preventive actions for the appearance of dependence on the PE.
Key words: Exercise dependence, sport motivation, exercise identity, endurance exercise, prevention.
References
American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890423349
Anderson, C. B. (2004). Athletic Identity and Its Relation to Exercise Behavior: Scale Development and Initial Validation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 26(1), 39–56.
Anderson, D. F., & Cychosz, C. M. (1994). Development of an Exercise Identity Scale. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78, 747- 751.
Antolín, V., De la Gándara, J., García, I., & Martín, A. (2009). Adicción al deporte: ¿moda postmoderna o problema sociosanitario? Norte de Salud Mental, 34, 15–22.
Back, J., Josefsson, T., Ivarsson, A., & Gustafsson, H. (2021). Psychological risk factors for exercise dependence. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 19(4), 461-472.https://doi.org/1080/1612197X.2019.1674902
Balaguer, I., Castillo, I., & Duda, J.L. (2007). Propiedades psicométricas de la Escala de Motivación Deportiva en deportistas españoles. Revista Mexicana de Psicología, 24, 197-207.
Bamber, D.J., Cockerill, I.M., Rodgers, S., & Carroll, D. (2003). Diagnostic criteria for exercise dependence in women. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 37(5), 393-400.https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.37.5.393.
Biggs, D.P., Mallinson-Howard, S.H., Jowett, G.E., & Hall, H.K. (2022). Perfectionism and Exercise Dependence: the Role of Basic Psychological Needs and Introjected Regulation. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-022-00943-6
Bermejo, J., Almagro, B., & Rebollo, J. (2018). Factores motivacionales relacionados con la intención de seguir practicando ejercicio físico en mujeres adultas. Retos. Nuevas tendencias en Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, 34, 117-122. Recuperado de https:// recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/retos/article/view/54319
Brewer, B., & Petitpas, A. (2017). “Athletic Identity Foreclosure.” Current Opinion in Psychology, 16, 118–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.05.004.
Brewer, B. W., Van Raalte, J.L., & Linder, D.E. (1993). Athletic Identity: Hercules´ muscles or Achilles heel? International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24(2), 237-254.
Briere, N., Vallerand, R., Blais, R., & Pelletier, L. (1995). Dévelopmentet Validation d´ un Mesure de Motivation Intrinsic, Extrensique et d´ amotivation en Contexte Sportif L’Echelle de Motivation dans le Sport. International Journal of sport Psychology, 2, 465-489.
Burke, P. T., & Reitzes, D. (1981). The link between identity and role performance. Social Psychology Quarterly, 44, 83–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/ 3033704
Cabrita, T., Rosado, A., De la Vega, R., & Serpa, S. (2018). Identidad atlética y características del atleta como predictor de la dependencia al ejercicio. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 27 (2), 99-106. Recuperado de https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/identidad-atlética-y-características-del-atleta/docview/2250572267/se-2
Cook, B., Karr, TM., Zunker, C., Mitchell, J., Thompson, R., Sherman, R., Erickson, A., Cao, L., & Crosby, RD. (2015). The influence of exercise identity and social physique anxiety on exercise dependence. Journal of Behavioral addictions, 4(3), 195-199.http://doi.org/10.1556/2006.4.2015.020
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, United State: Plenum Press
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1104_01
Deci E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2012). Self-determination theory. In PAM Van Lange, AW Kruglanski, ET Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology. Sage Publications Ltd. https:// doi.org/10.4135/9781446249215.n21
Dishman, R.K. (Ed.). (1994). Advances in exercise adherence. Human Kinetics Publishers.
Downs, D. S., Hausenblas, H. A., & Nigg, C. R. (2004). Factorial validity and psychometric examination of the Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 8(4), 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327841mpee0804_1
Edmunds, J., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J. L. (2006a). A test of Self-Determination Theory in exercise. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 2240– 2265. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006 .00102.x
Edmunds, J., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J. L. (2006b). Examining Exercise Dependence Symptomatology from a Self-determination Perspective. Journal of Health Psychology, 11(6), 887–903. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105306069091
Egorov, A., & Szabo, A. (2013). The exercise paradox: An interactional model for a clearer conceptualization of exercise addiction. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 2, 199–208. https://doi.org/10.1556/jba.2.2013.4.2
Flores Allende, G., & Ruiz-Juan, F. (2010). Reasons why the university students do not do any physical activity during their free time. In specific the case of the University of Guadalajara. Retos-Nuevas Tendencias en Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, 17, 34–37.
Fortier, M. S., & Farrell, R. J. (2009). Comparing self-determination and body image between excessive and healthy exercisers. Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 6(2), 223–243.
Gapin, J.I., & Petruzzello, S.J. (2011). Athletic identity and disordered eating in obligatory and non-obligatory runners. Journal of Sport Sciences, 29(10), 1001-1010. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2011.571275
Gomes, R., & Capelão, T. (2013). Commitment to Exercise: The Influence of Personal, Athletic, and Psychological Characteristics. Universitas Psychologica, 12(2), 505-515.
González-Cutre, D., & Sicilia, A. (2012). Motivation and exercise dependence: a study based on self-determination theory. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 83(2), 318–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2012.10599863
González-Hernández, J., Nogueira, A., & Lorenzo, O. (2019). Perseverance and addiction processes: Clues to identify exercise addicts. Journal of Concurrent Disorders, 1(2), 31–46.
Griffiths, M. D. (2005). A ‘components’ model of addiction within a biopsychosocial framework. Journal of Substance Use, 10(4), 191–197. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14659890500114359
Guíu Carrera, M., & Leyton Román, M. (2019). Perfil psicológico en corredores de ultramaratón (Psychological profile in ultramarathon runners). Retos, 36, 310–317. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v36i36.69119
Hamer, M., Karageorghis, C. I. & Vlachopoulos, S. P. (2002). Motives for exercise participation as predictors of exercise dependence among endurance athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 42(2), 233-238.
Hausenblas, H., Mann, D., & Downs, D. (2020). Measurement, Prevention, and Treatment of Exercise Addiction. In S. Sussman (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Substance and Behavioral Addictions (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 352-361). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108632591.036
Hausenblas, H., & Symons Downs, D. (2002). Exercise dependence: A systematic review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 3 (2), 89–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1469-0292(00)00015-7
Herrero-Fernández, D. (2015). A comparison of internet-based and paper-and-pencil questionnaires in assessing driving anger in a Spanish sample. REMA: Revista Electrónica de Metodología Aplicada, 20(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.17811/rema.20.1.2015.1-15
Horton, R.S., & Mack, D.E. (2000). Athletic identity in marathon runners: Functional focus or dysfunctional commitment? Journal of Sport Behavior, 23, 101–119. Recuperado de https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/athletic-identity-marathon-runners-functional/docview/619532595/se-2
Hurst, R., Hale, B., Smith, D., & Collins, D. (2000). Exercise dependence, social physique anxiety, and social support in experienced and inexperienced bodybuilders and weightlifters. British Journal of Sport Medicine, 34, 431-435. http://doi. org/10.1136/bjsm.34.6.431
Krouse, R., Ransdell, L., Lucas, S., & Pritchard, M. (2011). Motivation, goal orientation, coaching, and training habits of women ultrarunners. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(10), 2835-2842.https://doi.org/ 10.1519/JSC.0b013e318204caa0
Kun, B., Urbán, R., Szabo, A., Magi, A., Eisinger, A., & Demetrovics, Z. (2022). Emotion dysregulation mediates the relationship between psychological distress, symptoms of exercise addiction and eating disorders: A large-scale survey among fitness center users. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 11(2), 198–213. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000274
Larumbe, E., Pérez-Llantada, M., & López, A. (2009). Características del estado psicológico de los corredores populares de maratón. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 18(2), 151-163. Recuperado de https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=235119253002
Lirola, M.J., Sicilia, A., Burgueño, R., & Medina-Casaubón, J. (2017). El papel de la identidad atlética y las regulaciones motivacionales sobre la adicción al ejercicio. En D. Godoy Izquierdo, M.C. Bohórquez Gómez-Millán, J.C. Caracuel Tubío & F. Arbinaga Ibarzábal (Eds.), XV Congreso Andaluz y II Luso-Andaluz de Psicología de la Actividad Física y el Deporte (p. 48). Granada: España. Asociación de Psicología del Deporte de Andalucía.
López, A.N., Salguero, A., Molinero, O., Rosado, A., & Márquez, S. (2022). Exercise Addiction in Competitive Amateur Runners. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20, 2134–2150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00504-3
Lu, FJH., Hsu, EYW., Wang, JM., Huang, MY., Chang, JN., & Wang, CH. (2012). Exercisers´ Identities and Exercise Dependence: The mediating effect of Exercise Commitment. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 115(2), 618-631. http://doi.org/10.2466/06.13.21.PMS.115.5.618-631
Maceri, R.M., Cherup, N.P., Buckworth, J. & Hanson, N.J. (2021). Exercise Addiction in Long Distance Runners. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 19, 62–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-019-00122-0
Modrono, C., Guillen, F., & González, J.J. (2010). Análisis de las propiedades psicométricas de la versión española de la Exercise Identity Scale. Revista Mexicana de Psicología, 27(1), 25-34.
Murray, A. L., McKenzie, K., Newman, E., & Brown, E. (2013). Exercise identity as a risk factor for exercise dependence. British Journal of Health Psychology, 18, 369–382. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8287.2012.02091
Parastatidou, I. S., Doganis, G., Theodorakis, Y., & Vlachopoulos, S. P. (2014). The mediating role of passion in the relationship of exercise motivational regulations with exercise dependence symptoms. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 12(4), 406–419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-013-9466-x
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
Pelletier, L. G., Fortier, M. S., Vallerand, R. J., Tuson, K. M., Briere, N. M., & Blais, M. R. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The sport motivation scale (SMS). Journal of Sport &Exercise Psychology, 17, 35-53.
Pike, C., Taylor, A., & Cosh, SM. (2022) Compulsive Exercise, Exercise Identity, and Coping Styles. Zeitschrift für Sportpsychologie. https://doi.org/10.1026/1612-5010/a000361
Potenza, M. N. (2013). Neurobiology of gambling behaviors. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 23(4), 660-667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2013.03.004.
Reifsteck, E.J., Gill, D.L., & Labban, J.D. (2016). “Athletes” and “Exercisers”: Understanding Identity, Motivation, and Physical Activity Participation in Former College Athletes. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 5(1), 25-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/spy0000046
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2011). Multiple identities within a single self: A Self-Determination Theory perspective on internalization within contexts and cultures. In M. R. Leary & J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (2nd ed., pp. 225– 246). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Publications.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61(April), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., Vansteenkiste, M., & Soenens, B. (2021). Building a science of motivated persons: Self-determination theory’s empirical approach to human experience and the regulation of behavior. Motivation Science, 7(2), 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000194
Schüler, J., Knechtle, B., & Wegner, M. (2018). Antecedents of exercise dependence in ultra-endurance sports: Reduced basic need satisfaction and avoidance-motivated self-control. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1275.
Schutte, N. S., & McNeil, D. G. (2015). Athletic identity mediates between exercise motivation and beneficial outcomes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 38(2), 234–252.
Sicilia, A., Alcaraz-Ibañez, M., Lirola, M-J., Burgueño, R., & Maher, A. (2018). Exercise motivational regulations and exercise addiction: The mediating role of passion. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 7 (2), 482-492. http://doi.org/ 10.1556/2006.7.2018.36
Sicilia, A., & González-Cutre, D. (2011). Dependence and Physical Exercise: Spanish Validation of the Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised (EDS-R). The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 14(1), 421–431. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev
Springer, J. B., Lamborn, S. D., & Pollard, D. M. (2013). Maintaining physical activity over time: The importance of basic psychological need satisfaction in developing the physically active self. American Journal of Health Promotion, 27, 284–293. http://dx .doi.org/10.4278/ajhp.110211-QUAL-62
Strachan, S. M., & Brawley, L. R. (2007). Exercise identity moderates the strenuous exercise intention-behavior relationship. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 29.
Strachan, S. M., Fortier, S., Perras, G. M., & Lugg, C. (2012). Understanding variations in identity strength through identity theory and self-determination theory. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 1–13.
Stryker, S., & Burke, P. J. (2000). The past, present, and future of identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63(4), 284–297. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/ 2695840
Taylor, I. M., Ntoumanis, N., Standage, M., & Spray, C. M. (2010). Motivational predictors of physical education students’ effort, exercise intentions, and leisure-time physical activity: A multilevel linear growth analysis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 32(1), 99-120.
Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., & Ntoumanis, N. (2006). The role of self-determined motivation in the understanding of exercise-related behaviours, cognitions and physical self-evaluations. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24(4), 393–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/026404105001316 70 22
Teixeira, P. J., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: a systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition Physical Activity, 9(78), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78
Tornero-Quiñones, I., Sáez-Padilla, J., Castillo Viera, E., Garcia Ferrete, J. J., & Sierra Robles, A. (2019). Risk of dependence on sport in relation to body dissatisfaction and motivation. Sustainability, 11(19), 5299.
Vallejo-Reyes, F.A., Mena Campbell, J.I., Lochbaum, M.R., Duclos-Bastías, D.M., Guerrero-Santana, I., & Carrasco-Beltrán, H.J. (2018). Adaptación y validez de la escala de motivación en el deporte 2 (EMD-2) para estudiantes chilenos. Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte, 18(1), 63-74. Recuperado de https://revistas.um.es/cpd/article/view/265151
Vallerand, R. J., Blanchard, C., Mageau, G. A., Koestner, R., Ratelle, C., Léonard, M., Gagné, M., & Marsolais, J. (2003). Les passions de l'âme: On obsessive and harmonious passion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), 756–767. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.756
Vlachopoulos, S. P., Kaperoni, M., & Moustaka, F. C. (2011). The relationship of self-determination theory variables to exercise identity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12, 265–272. http://dx .doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.11.006
Weinstein, A., & Weinstein, Y. (2014). Exercise addiction-diagnosis, bio-psychological mechanisms, and treatment issues. Current pharmaceutical design, 20(25), 4062-4069. https://doi.org/10.2174/13816128113199990614.
Wilson, P. M., & Muon, S. (2007). Psychometric properties of the exercise identity scale: A preliminary study. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 29.
Wilson, P. M., & Muon, S. (2008). Psychometric properties of the Exercise Identity Scale in a university sample. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6, 115–131. http://dx.doi .org/10.1080/1612197X.2008.9671857
Wilson, P. M., Rodgers, W. M., & Fraser, S. N. (2002). Examining the psychometric properties of the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 6, 1–21.
Yildiz, M., & Senei, E. (2020). The Relationship between Sport Motivation and Exercise Dependence: Comparing Turks Living in Different Countries. International Journal of Applied Exercise Physiology, 9(7), 173-181.
Zandonai, T., Manresa-Rocamora, A., Monese, L., MoyaRamón, M., Schena, F., & Chiamulera, C. (2020). A descriptive study of exercise dependence: a short report among Italian and Japanese runners. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 39(1), 133-137.
Zarauz, A., Ruiz-Juan, F., & Flores-Allende, G. (2014). Compromiso con el entrenamiento y competición de los maratonianos según variables sociodemográficas. Retos. Nuevas tendencias en Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, 26, 118-121. Recuperado de https:// recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/retos/article/view/34412
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Retos
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and ensure the magazine the right to be the first publication of the work as licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of authorship of the work and the initial publication in this magazine.
- Authors can establish separate additional agreements for non-exclusive distribution of the version of the work published in the journal (eg, to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Is allowed and authors are encouraged to disseminate their work electronically (eg, in institutional repositories or on their own website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as to a subpoena more Early and more of published work (See The Effect of Open Access) (in English).
This journal provides immediate open access to its content (BOAI, http://legacy.earlham.edu/~peters/fos/boaifaq.htm#openaccess) on the principle that making research freely available to the public supports a greater global exchange of knowledge. The authors may download the papers from the journal website, or will be provided with the PDF version of the article via e-mail.
