Contextual, Non-Cognitive Variables, and Peer Effects as Factors Associated with Grade Repetition in Spain

Abstract

Although it has slightly decreased in recent years, Spain remains one of the countries with the highest repetition rates. To better understand the contextual and non-cognitive factors associated with this phenomenon, correlational analyses and multilevel logistic models were applied to the Spanish sample of PISA 2022. Predictive variables were included both individually and aggregated at the school level to study peer effects. The results contribute to previous studies by highlighting a significant impact of the student’s school environment on grade repetition. 15% of the variability associated with grade repetition can be explained by the grouping of students in schools. At the individual level, the contextual variables most strongly associated with repetition are family socioeconomic status and migration background. Among non-cognitive variables at the student level, the results indicate the significant protective effect of academic expectations, punctuality, perseverance, regular school attendance, and family support, as well as the risks associated with bullying, having numerous household responsibilities, or excessive use of ICT for leisure during the week. Additionally, the association between variables aggregated at the school level and individual repetition stands out. The main variables showing this peer effect in protecting against repetition include a higher percentage of female students in the school, generally high levels of academic expectations, good overall levels of assertiveness among students, and appropriate management of ICT. Moreover, widespread poor eating habits or excessive domestic responsibilities emerge as risk factors displaying peer effects. The extent of these peer effects raises questions about the strategies implemented within the educational system to promote academic success.

Key words: Grade retention, non-cognitive factors, contextual factors, multilevel logistic regression, compulsory secondary education.