Feeling the hate: analysis of the perceived severity of hate speech in the Spanish population
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.22325/fes/res.2024.219Keywords:
hate speech, perceived severity, social problem, survey, SpainAbstract
This research aims to analyze the opinions, attitudes, and perceptions of the population regarding seriousness of hate speech (HS) that is spread on the Internet. For that purpose, a self-made survey was conducted on a sample of 1,022 people aged over 16 residing in Spain. The results allow us to conclude that the surveyed population generally perceives hate speech to be highly serious. The analysis also enabled to identify four types of hate speech: racist and exclusionary hatred, sexist and gender hatred, violent and ironic hatred, and ideological hatred. Variables such as age, gender, ideology, education level, social media usage frequency or individuals' stand on hate speech, contribute to discerning their sensitivity levels towards these hate speech variations.
References
Abuín-Vences, N., Cuesta-Cambra, U., Niño-González, J. y Bengochea-González, C. (2022). Análisis del discurso de odio en función de la ideología: Efectos emocionales y cognitivos. Comunicar, 30(71), 37-48. https://doi.org/10.3916/C71-2022-03
Álvarez-Benjumea, A. (2023). Uncovering hidden opinions: social norms and the expression of xenophobic attitudes. European Sociological Review, 39(3), 449-463. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcac056
Anti-Defamation League (2021). The Pyramid of Hate. https://www.adl.org/sites/default/files/pyramid-of-hate-web-english_1.pdf
Bandalos, D. L. y Finney, S. J. (2019). Factor Analysis: Exploratory and Confirmatory. En G. R. Hancock, y R. O. Mueller (Eds.), Reviewer’s guide to quantitative methods (pp. 98-122). London: Routledge.
Bautista-Ortuño, R., Castro-Toledo, F.J., Perea-García, J.O. y Rodríguez Gómez, N. (2018). "May I offend you?" An experimental study on perceived offensiveness in online violent communication and hate speech. International e-journal of criminal sciences, (12), 1-21. https://ojs.ehu.eus/index.php/inecs/article/view/19932/17794
Boeckmann, R. J. y Turpin‐Petrosino, C. (2002). Understanding the harm of hate crime. Journal of social issues, 58(2), 207-225. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00257
Bonaut, J., Vicent-Ibáñez, M. y Paz-Rebollo, M.A. (2023). Sports journalists and readers: journalism and user incivity. Journalism practice, 18(2), 356-373.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2023.2222730
Bormann, M., Tranow, U., Vowe G. y Ziegle, M. (2021). Incivility as a violation of communication norms—A typology based on normative expectations toward political communication. Communication Theory, 32(3), 332-362. https://doi.org/10.1093/ct/qtab018
Cabeza, J., Casado, R. y Paz, M.A. (2022). ¿Qué se comenta de un reality? Análisis del foro en Facebook de Gran Hermano España (2011-2019). Revista de Comunicación, 21(2), 51-68. https://doi.org/10.26441/RC21.2-2022-A3
Cáceres-Zapatero, M. D., Brändle, G. y Paz-Rebollo, M. A. (2023). Stances on hate speech: Population opinions and attitudes. Profesional de la información, 32(4), e320410. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2023.jul.10
Cea D’Ancona, M. Á. (2005). La senda tortuosa de la "calidad" de la encuesta. Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 111, 75-103. https://reis.cis.es/REIS/PDF/REIS_111_051168262751380.pdf
Costello, M., Hawdon, J., Bernatzky, C. y Mendes, K. (2019). Social group identity and perceptions of online hate. Sociological inquiry, 89(3), 427-452. https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12274
Davis, J. T. y Perry, S. L. (2021). White Christian nationalism and relative political tolerance for racists. Social Problems, 68(3), 513-534. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spaa002
Filibeli, T.E. y Ertuna, C. (2021). Sarcasm beyond hate speech: Facebook comments on Syrian refugees in Turkey. International Journal of Communication, 15(24), 2236-2259. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/16582
Fortuna, P. y Nunes, S. (2018). A survey on automatic detection of hate speech in text. ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), 51(4), 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1145/3232676
Freidin, E., Moro, R. y Silenzi, M. I. (2022). El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica. Revista SAAP, 16(1), 37-63. https://doi.org/10.46468/rsaap.16.1.A2
Frischlich, L., Schatto-Eckrodt, T., Boberg, S. y Wintterlin, F. (2021). Roots of Incivility: How Personality, Media Use, and Online Experiences Shape Uncivil Participation, Media and Communication, 9(1), 195-208. https://doi.org/10.17645/mac.v9i1.3360
García-Juanatey, A. (Ed.) (2020). El extremismo de derecha entre la juventud española: situación actual y perspectivas. Injuve, Ministerio de Derechos Sociales, Gobierno de España. https://www.injuve.es/sites/default/files/adjuntos/2021/05/estudio_injuve_el_extremismo_de_derecha.pdf
Herrero, J., Reguero, I., Berdón, P. y Martín, V. (2022). La estrategia del odio: polarización y enfrentamiento partidista en Twitter durante las elecciones a la Asamblea de Madrid de 2021. Prisma Social: revista de investigación social, (39), 183-212. https://revistaprismasocial.es/article/view/4829
Iyengar, S., Sood, G. y Lelkes. Y. (2012). Affect, not ideology: a social identity perspective on polarization. Public Opinion Quarterly, 76(3), 405-431. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41684577
Kenski, K., Coe, K. y Rains, S. A. (2020). Perceptions of Uncivil Discourse Online: An Examination of Types and Predictors. Communication Research, 47(6), 795-814. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650217699933
Kocoń, J., Figas, A., Gruza, M., Puchalska, D., Kajdanowicz, T. y Kazienko, P. (2021). Offensive, aggressive, and hate speech analysis: From data-centric to human-centered approach. Information Processing & Management, 58(5), 102643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102643
Ksiazek, T. B., Peer, L. y Zivic, A. (2015). Discussing the news: civility and hostility in user comments. Digital Journalism, 3(6), 850-870. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2014.972079
Lacalle, C., Gómez-Morales, B. y Vicent-Ibáñez, M. (2023). Misoginia y construcción de masculinidades tóxicas en la Manosfera española (Burbuja.info). Profesional de la Información, 32(2), e320215. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2023.mar.15
Leonhard, L., Rueß, C., Obermaier, M. y Reinemann, C. (2018). Perceiving threat and feeling responsible. How severity of hate speech, number of bystanders, and prior reactions of others affect bystanders’ intention to counterargue against hate speech on Facebook. Studies in Communication and Media, 7(4), 555-579. https://doi.org/10.5771/2192-4007-2018-4-555
MacAvaney, S., Yao, H. R., Yang, E., Russell, K., Goharian, N. y Frieder, O. (2019). Hate speech detection: Challenges and solutions. PloS one, 14(8) https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221152
Ministerio del Interior (2021). Informe sobre los delitos de odio en España. Ministerio del Interior, Gobierno de España. https://www.interior.gob.es/opencms/export/sites/default/.galleries/galeria-de-prensa/documentos-y-multimedia/balances-e-informes/2022/Informe_Evolucion_delitos_odio_2022.pdf
O’Connor, C. (2021). Hatescape: An In-Depth Analysis of Extremism and Hate Speech on TikTok. Institute for Strategic Dialogue. https://www.isdglobal.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/HateScape_v5.pdf
Ohme, J. y Mothes, C, (2020). What affects first- and second-level selective exposure to journalistic news? A social media online experiment. Journalism Studies, 21(9), 1220-1242. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2020.1735490
Orriols, L. (2021). La polarización afectiva en España: bloques ideológicos enfrentados. ESADE. https://itemsweb.esade.edu/research/Policy-insight-polarizacion-afectiva.pdf
Papcunová, J., Martončik, M., Fedáková, D., Kentoš, M., Bozogáňová, M., Srba, I., Moro, R., Pikuliak, M., Šimko, M. y Adamkovič, M. (2021). Hate speech operationalization: a preliminary examination of hate speech indicators and their structure. Complex & Intelligent Systems, 9, 2827-2842. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40747-021-00561-0
Pariser, E. (2017). El filtro burbuja. Cómo la Red decide lo que leemos y lo que pensamos. Madrid: Taurus.
Paz-Rebollo, M.A., Cáceres-Zapatero, M. D. y Martín-Sánchez, I. (2021). Suscripción a la prensa digital como contención a los discursos de odio. Profesional de la información, 30(6). https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2021.nov.13
Román-San-Miguel, A., Olivares García, F. J. y Jiménez-Zafra, S. M. (2022). El discurso de odio en Twitter durante la crisis migratoria de Ceuta en mayo de 2021. Icono14, 20(2). https://doi.org/10.7195/ri14.v20i2.1858
Salminen, J., Veronesi, F., Almerekhi, H., Jun, S. y Jansen, B.J. (2018). Online Hate Interpretation Varies by Country, But More by Individual: A Statistical Analysis Using Crowdsourced Ratings. In 2018 Fifth International Conference on Social Networks Analysis, Management and Security (SNAMS) (pp. 88-94). https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8554954
Salminen, J., Hopf., M., Chowdhury, S.A., Jung, S., Almerekhi, H. y Jansen, B.J. (2020). Developing an online hate classifier for multiple social media platforms. Human-centric Computing and Information Sciences, 10(1), 1-34. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13673-019-0205-6
Sambaraju, R. y McVittie, C. (2020). Examining abuse in online media. Social and personality psychology compass, 14(3), e12521. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12521
Schmid, U. K., Kümpel, A. S. y Rieger, D. (2022). How social media users perceive different forms of online hate speech: A qualitative multi-method study. New Media & Society. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221091185
Schweppe, J. y Perry, B. (2022). A continuum of hate: delimiting the field of hate studies. Crime, Law and Social Change, 77(5), 503-528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-021-09978-7
Soral, W., Bilewicz, M. y Winiewski, M. (2018). Exposure to hate speech increases prejudice through desensitization. Aggressive behavior, 44(2), 136-146. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21737
Statista (2023). Datos estadísticos sobre uso de redes sociales en España. https://es.statista.com/temas/6566/las-redes-sociales-en-espana/#topicOverview
Sue, D., Capodilupo, C. y Holder, A. (2008). Racial microaggressions in the life experience of black Americans. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39(3), 329-336. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.39.3.329
Udanor, C. y Anyanwu, C. C. (2019). Combating the challenges of social media hate speech in a polarized society: A Twitter ego lexalytics approach. Data Technologies and Applications, 53(4), 501-527. https://doi.org/10.1108/DTA-01-2019-0007
Van Duyn, E. y Muddiman, A. (2022). Predicting perceptions of incivility across 20 news comment sections. Journalism, 23(1), 134-152. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884920907779
Wojatzki, M., Horsmann, Gold, D. y Zesch, T. (2018). Do women perceive hate differently: Examining the relationship between hate speech, gender, and agreement judgments. Proceedings of the 14th Conference on Natural Language Processing (KONVENS 2018). Vienna, Austria – September 19-21. https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/subsites/academiaecorpora/PDF/konvens18_13.pdf
Zhang, Z. y Luo, L. (2018). Hate speech detection: A solved problem? The challenging case of long tail on Twitter. Semantic Web, 10(5), 925-945. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1803.03662
Ziegele, M., Jost, P., Bormann, M. y Heinbach, D. (2018). Journalistic Counter- Voices in Comment Sections: Patterns, Determinants, and Potential Consequences of Interactive Moderation of Uncivil User Comments. Studies in Communication and Media, 7(4), 525-554. https://doi.org/10.5771/2192-4007-2018-4-525
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Gaspar Brändle, María Dolores Cáceres Zapatero, María Antonia Paz Rebollo
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
• The transfer of the copyright of the article to Revista Española de Sociología.
• The assignment to the Revista Española de Sociología of the rights of commercial exploitation of the article to third parties both in the offset and digital formats, as well as to the search engines and platforms that may serve as intermediaries for the sale or knowledge of the article.