FIGURE I. Hipothesized model
Source: Compiled by author
https://doi.org/10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2023-400-578
Lidia E. Santana-Vega
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2543-6543
Instituto Universitario de Estudios de las Mujeres (IUEM)
Universidad de La Laguna
Zuleica Ruiz-Alfonso
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7090-0096
Universidad de La Laguna
Luis Feliciano-García
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2909-4990
Universidad de La Laguna
Abstract
Gender stereotypes are at the root of gender inequalities in education and employment. These stereotypes affect adolescent girls' academic performance, interests, behaviours and career choices. The aims of the study are: a) to examine whether there are differences in career decision self-efficacy, career adaptability and clarity of lifedesign of adolescent girls according to their gender stereotypes; b) to introduce a model with the independent variable “gender stereotype” to understand the relationship between the analyzed variables. The study involved 1,012 female students in the 3rd and 4th years of secondary education. Data collection was carried out using the Academic and Vocational Guidance Questionnaire. Correlation analyses and parametric tests were carried out; a structural equation model was run to understand the relationships between variables and to test a hypothetical model predicting the effect of gender stereotypes. Results showed that girls with high gender stereotypes have lower scores on career decision-making self-efficacy, career adaptability and clarity of life-design than girls with low stereotypes. A parsimonious model was constructed to fit the data, in which adolescent girls' stereotypes predicted career decision-making self-efficacy, and in turn self-efficacy predicted career adaptability and clarity of life-design. The improvement of these vocational variables in adolescent female students requires a critical analysis of the beliefs that underlie gender stereotypes; an analysis that allows them to become aware of the socio-cultural nature of these stereotypes, promote their deconstruction and empower them vocationally.
Keywords: gender stereotypes; career choice; secondary school students; self-efficacy; career adaptability; life-design
Resumen
Los estereotipos de género son la base de las desigualdades entre hombres y mujeres en la educación y el empleo. Estos estereotipos afectan al rendimiento académico, intereses, comportamientos y elecciones de carrera de las adolescentes. Los objetivos del estudio son: a) examinar si existen diferencias en la auto-eficacia para la toma de decisiones de la carrera, la adaptabilidad de la carrera y la claridad del diseño del proyecto de vida de las adolescentes según sus estereotipos de género; b) introducir un modelo con la variable independiente “estereotipo de género” para comprender la relación entre las variables analizadas. En el estudio participaron 1.012 alumnas de 3º y 4º de educación secundaria. La recogida de datos se realizó a través del Cuestionario de Orientación Académica y Laboral. Se realizaron análisis de correlación y contrates paramétricos; se ejecutó un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales para comprender las relaciones entre las variables y contrastar un modelo hipotético que predice el efecto de los estereotipos de género. Los resultados mostraron que las chicas con altos estereotipos de género tienen puntuaciones más bajas en la autoeficacia para la toma de decisiones de la carrera, la adaptabilidad de la carrera y en la claridad del diseño del proyecto de vida, frente a las chicas con bajos estereotipos. Se construyó un modelo parsimonioso que se ajusta a los datos, en el que los estereotipos de las adolescentes predijeron la autoeficacia para tomar decisiones de carrera y, a su vez, la autoeficacia predijo la adaptabilidad para la carrera y la claridad del diseño del proyecto vital. La mejora de estas variables vocacionales en las alumnas pasa por el análisis crítico de las creencias que subyacen a los estereotipos de género; un análisis crítico que les permita tomar conciencia de la naturaleza sociocultural de dichos estereotipos, promover su deconstrucción y empoderarlas vocacionalmente.
Palabras clave: estereotipos de género; elección de carrera; estudiantes de secundaria; autoeficacia; adaptabilidad de la carrera; proyecto de vida
Throughout the history of mankind inequality between sexes has been present in all social and political systems. The woman´s situation has been marked by a patriarchal culture which has established social, educational, political and economic restrictions for them (Kollmayer et al., 2018; Solbes-Canales et al., 2020). The inequality between men and women has made itself felt in access to education, professional training and work; it is also present in the housework distribution, in advertising, in text books and in other cultural expressions (Sánchez-García & Suárez-Ortega, 2021).
Gender stereotypes are the basis for inequalities between males and females in education and employment (Smith, 2014). These stereotypes refer to expected patterns of behaviour for women and men, based on beliefs of what is appropriate for each other Martínez-Marín, 2018; (Santana-Vega et al., 2012; Villanueva-Blasco & Grau Alberola, 2019). The emergence of gender stereotypes begins in the early childhood, and by early adolescence most individuals have completely developed them (; McGuire et al., 2020; Olsson & Martiny, 2018; Picho & Schmader, 2018; Schuster & Martiny, 2017). Moreover, gender stereotypes affect adolescents’ academic achievement, interests, behaviours and vocational choices (Hadjar & Aeschlimann, 2015; Martínez-Marín, 2018; Ramaci et al., 2017).
Several studies have analyzed the role of gender in adolescents in a wide range of topics such as bullying (Navarro et al., 2015), problematic smartphone use (Haro et al., 2022), social networking and fear of missing out (Oberts et al., 2016; Santana-Vega et al., 2019a), professional choices (Alnıaçık et al., 2019; García et al., 2017; Heilman, 2015), study habits (Santos, et al., 2020), and subject and career choice (Dunlap & Barth, 2019; Makarova et al., 2019). These studies have mainly focused on differences between boys and girls regarding the beliefs associated to each gender. However, little research has been conducted to assess how gender stereotypes specifically affect high-school girls when they make vocational decisions and plan their life-design. This warrants special attention if we consider that students start planning their careers during compulsory secondary education, and they have to make important vocational decisions at the end of this educational stage (Babarović, 2016).
Decision making is a challenge for adolescents in an increasingly global and diverse society undergoing rapid socio-economic and technological changes (Savickas et al., 2009; Sawyer et al., 2018; Viola et al., 2017). Gender stereotypes influence and hinder women’s career development (Heilman, 2015), lead them to not choose certain academic and high-status fields (Olsson & Martiny, 2018) and affect their career decision-making process when they consider that they have fewer academic-employment opportunities than men (Migunde et al., 2015). The presence of women in university studies or in different spheres of professional activity is not uniform (Martínez et al., 2016); gender does not affect women in the same way as men, it does not equally influence men and women on their life-design, and the labour market is manifestly segregated by gender. According to European Institute for Gender Equality (2020), the EU’s progress on gender equality is still low; the change of this situation is only possible when legislative measures and other proactive government actions are implemented. There is no doubt that there is a social and educational need to better understand how gender stereotypes affect girls’ career development, especially in adolescence.
The development of vocational behaviors coexists with the emergence and establishment of Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy (CDSE) (Cepero, 2009). CDSE is an underlying variable in the decision-making process (Bandura et al., 2001). It is a type of self-perception of personal efficacy with respect to the competencies and skills intrinsic to the career choice process. This self-perception has a direct impact on the process of making decision (Lozano, 2006). According to Social Cognitive Theory, CDSE affects people’s vocational choice tasks: people tend to feel more committed, and to show more effort, persistence and self-confidence toward tasks in which they feel more effective (Betz & Schifano, 2000). In this way, CDSE plays an important role as a cognitive mediator for vocational behaviour (Jo et al., 2016). Research shows that adolescents' CDSE is positively related to proactivity, number of tasks aimed at exploration, persistence and motivation in the career decision-making process; however, it has an inverse relationship with perceived barriers to decision-making and indecision (Blanco, 2009; Creed et al., 2006; Duffy et al., 2015; Lam & Santos, 2018; Lozano, 2006;; Shin et al., 2014;).
Students’ beliefs about their own academic competence are shaped by gender stereotypes (Bouchey & Harter, 2005). Shin et al. (2019) observed that relationship between career gender stereotypes and CDSE was significant only for female students. Leaper et al. (2012) note that girls who hold beliefs about gender equality show more positive self-efficacy in maths and science. According to Brown (2019), girls who are more supportive of gender stereotypes have less academic self-efficacy and less orientation to mastery goals over time. The under-representation of women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) has been the focus of a number of studies. This under-representation has been linked to gender stereotypes and beliefs about the capabilities of boys and girls (Dunlap & Barth, 2019; Makarova et al., 2019; Moè et al., 2020). Jasko et al. (2019) point out that when girls focused on the similarities between men and women, they were more motivated to participate in STEM-related activities than when they focus on gender differences.
According to Tellhed et al. (2017), gender differences in interest towards scientific careers are related to girls’ lower perceived self-efficacy for those careers, and to girls’ lower expectations of social belonging in this kind of careers. Ramaci et al. (2017) point out that men perceive themselves to be more self-efficacious in military, scientific and agricultural professions than women, and that the parents’ profession is a predictor of self-efficacy in their vocational choice. Harding & Longhurst (2016) observed that girls at the beginning of their science careers had less coping self-efficacy than boys. Therefore, it is necessary to explore gender role stereotypes in girls, as well as to design intervention programmes that minimise their negative effects on CDSE (Shin et al., 2019). Efforts to explore the mechanisms intermediating between gender stereotypes and vocational behaviours are still highly warranted, and they constitute an urgent social and educational requirement.
Career Adaptability (CA) plays a fundamental role in the decision-making process. CA is conceptualized as a set of psychosocial self-regulation strategies and resources that allow coping and solving problems arising in vocational development tasks, in occupational transitions, or in negative work episodes that alter people's social integration (Rudolph et al., 2017; Savickas, 2013). These self-regulation strategies and resource are organized in four dimensions: 1) Concern or interest to be involved in decision making; 2) Confidence or feeling of efficacy to achieve goals and overcome obstacles; 3) Curiosity or inquiry into future alternatives and the actions to be taken to achieve them; 4) Control or awareness of personal responsibility in decision making (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). According to Hartung & Cadaret (2017), a lack of concern results in indifference/pessimism about the future; a lack of confidence results in inhibition regarding decision making; a low level of curiosity limits exploration; a low level of control results in indecisiveness.
Several studies (Duffy, et al., 2015; Hirschi, 2009; Marcionetti & Rosier, 2019; Merino-Tejedor et al., 2016; Negru-Subtirica & Pop, 2016; Tolentino et al., 2014; Viola et al., 2017) evidence that people with higher CA strategies and resources: a) are proactive in building their career; b) consider that they can successfully manage career-related tasks; c) have low levels of anxiety, high levels of extraversion and openness to experience; d) possess higher vocational identity and academic-job satisfaction. In this regard, Zhang et al. (2021) found that among male students, unlike female students, there is a significant negative association between career insecurity and worry, and a positive association between deep career exploration and concern. Shin et al. (2019) observed a CDSE-mediated effect on the relationship between career gender stereotypes and career adaptability in female students. Dostanić et al. (2021) observed that gender moderated how CDSE affected career adaptability: self-efficacy was a significant predictor of adaptability for the female student body, but not for male students. These results suggest that counselors should approach decision making with consideration of the constraints created by gender stereotypes, and that the role of gender in career decision making and adaptability should be investigated. Students have a stereotypical view of different professions (Miller et al., 2015), and the psychological barriers created by stereotypes are a handicap for women in accessing certain academic fields or jobs (Olsson & Martiny, 2018). It is necessary to explore in depth the effects that gender stereotypes have specifically on career adaptability of female students in compulsory secondary education.
Life-design is an active and continuous construction; its configuration requires a personal and contextual exploration, a decision-making process, a personal goals specification and a concrete action plan. It is an orientation towards the future in which people give meaning and purpose to their lives in a constantly changing socio-economic and employment context (Maree & Twigge, 2016). Life-design is the result of the conciliation between emotional and rational decision-making, which is strongly influenced by the personal and contextual conditions of each individual (Lomelí-Parga et al., 2016; Melendro et al., 2017; Savickas, 2016). The construction of the life-design begins during secondary education, implying serious difficulties for students due to the fact that they have to develop strategies to define their life goals, to recognize the required personal and material resources, to establish priorities, and to select aims based on these priorities in a stage characterized by fast change (Santana-Vega et al., 2016).
Villanueva-Blasco & Grau-Alberola (2019) point out that there are significant differences in the internalization of gender stereotypes between adolescents according to sex and age, with the transition to middle adolescence being the critical moment of this internalization. In childhood and adolescence, different socialization processes occur for boys and girls; this process have an impact on the prioritization of life design goals and, in particular, on academic and labor trajectories considered optimal for each gender (Ginevra & Nota, 2017; Selimbegovic et al., 2019). Santana-Vega et al. (2019b) observed differences between boys and girls with respect to the prioritization of their academic and labour goals, as well as with respect to family, leisure and physical appearance goals. Different studies have analyzed how gender differences affect students’ academic goals, observing meaningful differences between girls and boys (García et al., 2017; Picho & Schmader, 2018; Santana-Vega et al., 2012; Zhao et al., 2018). Struthers and Strachan (2019) found that gender stereotypes limit girls’ interest in courses and careers where there is a greater presence of men. The low presence of women in male-dominated vocational training courses means that occupational segregation of occupations remains resistant to change. Ehrtmann et al., (2019) say that students with male stereotypes have a high interest in mathematics, research and entrepreneurship, and a low interest in the artistic, social and conventional domains; while students with a female stereotype present the opposite pattern.
Despite the progress made in our society in terms of equality, there are still differences in academic and work opportunities based on gender. Although women’s access to the education system and the labour market has improved, they still encounter structural barriers (gender-differentiated socialization) and business barriers (limited access to certain occupations or responsibility for the positions they hold) marked by gender stereotypes (Jang et al., 2019). According to Buxarrais Estrada & Valdivielso Gómez (2021) education should be directed towards the realization of basic universal values and the construction of fairer and more inclusive societies; therefore, it is urgent to give gender equality more space and prominence in the educational system and in the curriculum.
Gender stereotypes can negatively affect girls' life-design during adolescence, insofar as they diminish their CDSE and limit the range of possible academic-professional objectives to be met. From a coeducational perspective it is necessary to pay attention to how gender stereotypes affect girls’ life-design and vocational development (Zhao et al., 2018).
The aim of this study is to explore the relationships between girls’ gender stereotypes and vocational variables, such as career decision self-efficacy, career adaptability, and clarity of life-design. Specifically, the aims are: a) to determine whether there are significant differences in those vocational variables according to girls' gender stereotypes; and b) to introduce a model with the independent variable gender stereotype to fully understand the relationship between the variables tested.
The following research questions were addressed:
Based on the literature reviewed, we hypothesized statistically significant relationships between girls’ gender stereotypes, career decision self-efficacy, career adaptability, and clarity of life-design. We also hypothesized that girls’ gender stereotypes will predict girls’ career decision self-efficacy, and this, in turn, will predict girls’ career adaptability and clarity of life-design (see Figure I).
FIGURE I. Hipothesized model
Source: Compiled by author
A total 1,012 female students were recruited from 22 secondary Spanish schools (20 state schools and 2 private schools). It is a sample of convenience.Girls were from third to fourth grades of compulsory secondary education, and their mean age was 15.26 (SD = 1.00).The management teams of the participating centers communicated to the research group their desire to participate in the project to facilitate to male and female students’ decision making.
Data collection was carried out using the Academic and Vocational Guidance Questionnaire, designed by the Educational and Vocational Guidance Research Group of La Laguna University. The questionnaire examines demographic, institutional, academic and vocational variables, and includes the following scales:
Decision-Making Self-Efficacy Scale. To assess career decision self-efficacy, the Decision-Making Self-Efficacy subscale from the Career Self-Efficacy scale developed by Carbonero y Merino (2002) was used. This subscale consists of 13 items relating to students’ self-confidence in their decision-making (e.g. “When I have to make decisions, the opinion of others influences me more than my own”). Items were rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (I strongly agree) to 4 (I do not agree at all) with the scores reverting to negative items. McDonald’s Omega was .95.
The objectives and characteristics of the study were explained to the school management teams. The management teams accepted the conditions of participation, informed the teachers and the students' families and requested their agreement. The students were informed about the process to be followed, the confidentiality and anonymity of the data collected, and their consent was obtained for the completion of the instruments. The information was used anonymously following the Organic Law 3/2018 of December 5, on Personal Data Protection and Guarantee of Digital Rights, and was used strictly for research purposes. The administration of the instruments was carried out during class hours by the tutor teachers, and they were completed in a 40-minute session.
Data analysis was carried out using SPSS 21 statistical software and Mplus 8.2 software (Muthén & Muthén, 2017), and included: descriptive statistics for each variable, Pearson’s correlation coefficient, analysis of variance, T-test contrast of means for independent groups, and the Cohen’s d to assess the significant effects and the effect sizes. In order to check whether there were significant differences in the vocational variables according to gender stereotypes, 25% of the subjects with high scores and 25% with low scores on the stereotypes scale were selected. In addition, a structural equation model (SEM) was run to fully understand the relationships between the variables and to contrast a hypothesized model predicting the effect of Girls’ Gender Stereotypes on Career Decision Self-Efficacy, factors of Career adaptability (Concern and Confidence) and Clarity of life-design. Standardized scores were used to simplify the interpretations and to reduce non-essential multicollinearity. The Chi-square (χ2) and its associated probability (p), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker Lewis Index (TLI), and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSA) were used. The model fits when CFI and TLI > .90, and RMSA ≤ .05. Regarding the estimation method, maximum likelihood with robust standard error was performed, as it has shown evidence of performing accurately even when data is non-normally distributed (Schmitt, 2011). Missing data were processed using the full information maximum-likelihood (FIML), which provides unbiased parameters in missing at random conditions and in cases where data is not missing at random (Enders, 2010).
Descriptive statistics and correlations between the variables are shown in Table I.
TABLE I. Means, standard deviations, and correlations between variables
|
Mean |
SD |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
1. Gender stereotypes |
15.32 |
3.50 |
- |
|
|
|
2. Self-efficacy |
38.30 |
5.38 |
.412** |
- |
|
|
3. Concern |
21.34 |
3.55 |
.488** |
.470** |
- |
|
4. Confidence |
13.85 |
2.66 |
.237** |
.443** |
.451** |
- |
5. Clarity of life-design |
11.45 |
2.51 |
.267** |
.477** |
.368** |
.589** |
** sig. < 0.05
Source: Compiled by author
We found significant differences between the mean age scores of high and low stereotypes groups in all variables (Table II). Overall, results showed that the higher Girls’ Stereotypes, the lower Vocational Self-Efficacy, Concern, Confidence, and Clarity of life-design.
TABLE II. T-test according to gender stereotyping
|
M |
SD |
t |
gl |
Sig |
d |
Vocational self-efficacy |
|
|
|
|
|
|
High stereotype |
35.15 |
5.33 |
-13.919 |
810 |
.000 |
1.02 |
Low stereotype |
40.90 |
5.88 |
|
|
|
|
Concern |
|
|
|
|
|
|
High stereotype |
12.12 |
2.51 |
-103.24 |
709.72 |
.000 |
6.32 |
Low stereotype |
23.64 |
.63 |
|
|
|
|
Confidence |
|
|
|
|
|
|
High stereotype |
8.11 |
2.37 |
-29,841 |
481.57 |
.000 |
2.24 |
Low stereotype |
13.89 |
2.75 |
|
|
|
|
Clarity of life-design |
|
|
|
|
|
|
High stereotype |
7.10 |
2.40 |
-8.345 |
850 |
.000 |
.61 |
Low stereotype |
8.57 |
2.42 |
|
|
|
|
Source: Compiled by author
Specifically, the contrast of means for Vocational Self-Efficacy showed that the group with lower stereotype had a significantly higher mean score (M= 40.90; SD= 5.88; p < .01) than the group with higher stereotype (M= 35.15; SD= 5.33). The effect size was high (d= 1.02).With regard to Career Adaptability, we also found significant differences between the mean average scores both in the Concern factor (high stereotype: M = 12.12; SD = 2.51; low stereotype: M = 23.64; SD = .63; p < .01) and in the Confidence factor (high stereotypes: M = 8.11, SD = 2.37; low stereotypes: M = 13.83, SD = 2.75; p < .01). The effect sizes were high for both Concern (d = 6.32) and Confidence (d = 2.24). Finally, regarding Clarity of life-design the contrast of means showed that the group with lower stereotype had a significantly higher mean score (M =8.57; SD = 2.42) than the group with higher stereotype (M = 7.10; SD = 2.40; p < .01). The effect size for Clarity of life-design was moderate (d = .61).
To fully understand the relationship between the variables tested, a structural equation model (SEM) was used to contrast a hypothesized model predicting the effect of Girls’ Gender Stereotypes on Career Decision Self-Efficacy, factors of Career adaptability (Concern and Confidence) and Clarity of life-design. The χ2 test and fit indexes for the SEM were χ2 (1011, 3) = 11.403 (p < .01), RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .021, CFI = .988, TLI = .962. With regard to the relationships between the variables, Girls’ Gender Stereotypes predicted Career Decision Self-Efficacy (β = .445; SE = .026; p < .001), and this, in turn, predicted Girls’ Concern (β = .429; SE = .029; p < .001), Girls’ Confidence (β = .410; SE = .025; p < .001), and Clarity of life-design (β = .337; SE = .034; p < .001). As the results show, a parsimonious model was obtained that fits the data, showing that the model is plausible to correctly explain the relationships between the variables tested (Figure II).
FIGURE II. Results of the structural equation model
Source: Compiled by author
Social progress in the field of gender equality is undeniable. However, stereotypes that establish gender-differentiated behavior patterns continue to persist; such stereotypes condition academic and socio-labour expectations and imply limitations in career development for both sexes (Villanueva-Blasco & Grau Alberola, 2019). In this sense, Koening (2018) points out the existence of prescriptive stereotypes for women and men. Women should be communal and avoid being dominant. Men should be independent, masculine in appearance, and interested in science and technology, and avoid being weak, emotional, shy, and feminine in appearance. According to these stereotypes, girls often do not perceive themselves represented in scientific-technological careers, while boys do not perceive themselves represented in social and humanistic careers. If the aim is to empower female students to shape life designs free of social prejudices, it is necessary to analyze the mechanism through which vocational gender stereotypes modulate their vocational behavior. The purpose of the present research work was to analyze how adolescent girls' gender stereotypes are related to career development self-efficacy, career adaptability and clarity of life-design.
In accordance with our second aim we proposed a model to explain the impact of gender stereotypes on vocational variables. Our results show how gender stereotypes affects CDSE; in turn CDSE is an important cognitive mediator of career adaptability and clarity of life-design. These results coincide with and complement those obtained in previous studies (Bouchey & Harter; 2005, Brown, 2019; Eccles, 2011; Jo et al., 2016; Shin et al., 2019). The improvement of self-efficacy and career adaptability of adolescent girls involves the critical analysis of the beliefs underlying gender stereotypes; an analysis that allows them to become aware of the socio-cultural nature of such stereotypes, promotes their deconstruction and empowers them vocationally. Educational and vocational guidance should help adolescent girls to decipher and understand the relationship of gender stereotypes with academic and occupational decision-making processes (Kessels et al., 2014). Unmasking what is hidden under these stereotypes implies becoming aware of differential socialization practices based on gender, carried out in families, schools and the peer group (Ecless, 2011). These practices condition the career development of adolescent girls, to the extent that they assume as real the differences in self-efficacy and academic-work expectations between boys and girls.
Many people have private convictions and implicit beliefs that often rely on stereotypical associations without them realizing that is the case. Indeed, across different cultures and contexts, even those who are reluctant to claim that women are less competent may still believe that women are particularly sensitive and need to be protected by men (Ellemers, 2018). To answer to this situation it is necessary to carry out, among other actions: 1) girls and boy should analyze collaboratively the contents of textbooks and mass media contents in order to check if the women are represented in politic, economic and social life, and analyzing the reasons why they are not made visibles; 2) to encourage adolescent to critically analyze their immediate social context and to explore their "possible selves" in a dynamic and flexible way (Sávickas et al., 2009).
Some implications for the professional practice of school counselors are: a) Counselors must be activists to change educational practices governed by a patriarchal culture. They should encourage the analysis of discourses elaborated by students to high light gender biases in decision making. According to Sávickas et al. (2009) counselors should help boys and girls tell a story that represents their life trajectory; a story through which they can understand their own life issues, vocational personality and adaptive resources. The role of the counselor should be to help adolescents formulate identity in their own words, how a given individual sees themselves and others in a particular context, and how they relate to others. Within the Tutorial Action Plan, awareness-raising activities, exploration of the self, exploration of the environment, exploration of the relationship between self and environment should be designed to analyze gender barriers in the development of the life-design. b) Career education programmes must be developed from a non-sexist approach to studies and professions. Such programmes should: to increase the adaptability of students to effectively manage their career development in a changing society; to promote analysis, discussion and reflection on the effect of personal, academic, family and social dimensions on decision making; to foster human, open and authentic dialogue with students so that they feel supported by significant others (Klehe et al., 2021).
Despite its strengths, the study has some limitations: a) The cross-sectional nature of the research does not allow us to establish a cause-effect relationship between the variables analysed; it would be advisable to carry out a longitudinal study. b) Likewise, a qualitative study could be conducted through discussion groups with adolescents in different educational stages and with different socio-familiar characteristics in order to examine their vocational stereotypes in greater depth, and to analyze how these stereotypes affect their self-efficacy and their career adaptability.
The research opens up new lines of study on vocational gender stereotypes in adolescent girls. Specifically, the following questions are posed for further research: a) What socio-familiar characteristics have the greatest impact on the development of vocational gender stereotypes?; b) how does the peer group contribute to reinforcing/eliminating these stereotypes?; c) how do the academic-professional trajectories of adolescent girls evolve according to their vocational stereotypes?; d) what personality factors characterize adolescent girls who maintain vocational stereotypes?; e) how can the deconstruction of gender stereotypes be facilitated in female students?; g) are vocational gender stereotypes maintained in students participating in vocational guidance programs?
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Contact Address: Lidia E. Santana-Vega. Universidad de La Laguna. Facultad de Educación, Didáctica e Investigación Educativa Dirección postal completa (institucional): Avenida Universidad s/n, Campus Central, 38200 (La Laguna). E-mail: lsantana@ull.es
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1 Zuleica Ruiz-Alfonso has participated in this research through the Postdoctoral Contract Juan de la Cierva of the State Program for the Promotion of Talent and its Employability in R&D&I, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation [FJCI-2017-31844].