https://doi.org/10.4438/1988-592X-RE-2025-410-703
Álvaro Marchesi
Profesor emérito. Universidad Complutense de Madrid
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9429-7674
The main purpose of this article is to assess the influence of
legislation on changes in education occurred in the last 50
years. We review the main laws of Education (excluding
university) especially those that have lasted at least three years LGE,
LODE, LOGSE, LOPEGCE, LOE, LOMCE and LOMLOE. Special consideration is
given to the two different ideological models: freedom to choose school
versus public provision planning, and student differentiation versus
comprehensive education. The article highlights the changes that have
taken place over the past five decades, affecting the quality and equity
of education, using key indicators of education, social, and economic
development. These data show significant progress, especially in GDP per
capita, public spending on education, and the enrollment of students
from all social sectors at all educational stages. Progress in the area
of educational inequalities, however, has been rather modest. Some
well-established initiatives are proposed to improve equity.
Educational legislation, comprehensiveness, school choice freedom, educational planning, educational quality, educational equity
El objetivo principal de este artículo es valorar la influencia de la legislación en los cambios educativos que se han producido en los últimos 50 años. Con esta finalidad, se analizan las principales leyes anteriores a la universidad que han tenido al menos tres años de vigencia: LGE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEGCE, LOE, LOMCE y LOMLOE. Se tiene especialmente en cuenta dos dimensiones que reflejan modelos ideológicos diferentes: la libertad de elección de centro frente a la planificación de la oferta pública y la diferenciación del alumnado frente a la educación común. El artículo incorpora los indicadores más relevantes, tanto educativos como sociales y económicos, que muestran los cambios que se han producido en estas cinco décadas en determinadas dimensiones de la calidad de la enseñanza y en su equidad. Los datos muestran progresos especialmente relevantes en el PIB per cápita, en el gasto público en educación y en la escolarización de los alumnos procedentes de todos los sectores sociales en todas la etapas educativa. Los avances han sido bastante más discretos en el área de las desigualdades educativas. Se proponen algunas iniciativas ya contrastadas para avanzar en la mejora de la equidad.
The article analyses the main proposals included in the laws over the
past 50 years
The second is the duration for which laws remain in force. It is difficult for short-lived laws that are replaced by others with different approaches to display their results. This is particularly true of laws passed in the 21st century. We are going to examine these laws, their goals to improve the education system and the initiatives launched before were repealed.
The article concludes by showing the changes that have taken place during these five decades in terms of improvement in education and inequality using for that purpose the most relevant education and economic indicators.
Significant changes took place in Spanish society throughout the 1960s, as a result of the economic development driven by the stabilization plans. A period of greater access to consumer goods, a better standard of living, and a general social feeling that the worst times had passed.
Franco´s regime, however, faced a deep contradiction: it sought to
maintain political structures rooted in authoritarian,
non-participatory, and repressive models, while at the same time trying
to modernize those institutions such as education that were lagging
behind international standards. The most striking example of this
contradiction was the presentation of the
The by 1967
The main rejection of LGE came from the teacher’s movement and later from the Professional Associations of Graduates and PhDs where progressive groups had a solid withhold on the governing boards (Pérez Galán, 1992; O’Malley, 1992).
The most significant change introduced by this law was the extension of compulsory, free and comprehensive education for all students up to 14 years, the so called Basic General Education. Compulsory education was also extended up to the age of 16, although was only free to the first degree in vocational training
Another major change was the elimination of the final exams at the end of the Lower and Upper Baccalaureates. These exams played a significant role in the selection of pupils and created barriers to their educational progress for many of them.
A significant step in expanding education was establishing the preschool stage within the system just before compulsory schooling. Similarly relevant was the initial idea of a Unified and Multipurpose Baccalaureate (BUP) together with a Vocational Training (VT), but this idea was later distorted in the process of implementation.
There were several innovative proposals related to the goals of education, the ways of teaching and learning, the curriculum design focusing on training and student auto-learning, teaching methodologies and student assessment. A significant innovation was also to include student’s educational and vocational guidance.
One of the most important proposals was to upgrade teaching studies to a diploma level within the university system together with the requirement for graduates to complete a pedagogical updating course (CAP) to apply for a position in High schools. Two main shortcomings that affected the implementation of these measures were a lack of funding on one side and a return to former models of the BUP and FP models on the other side. The first of these started to be solved with the arrival of democracy and the signing of the Moncloa Pacts. The structure of BUP and VET remained in place until the LOGSE was approved in 1990.
Franco´s death in 1975 and the holding of
the first free elections on June 15 1977 under the presidency
of Adolfo Suárez marked the beginning of a new democratic era in Spain.
The severe economic crisis led to the signing of the so-called Moncloa
Pacts in 1977. As a counterpart to the austerity measures, an
Extraordinary Schooling Plan of 40 billion pesetas was approved. It can
be said that the LGE began to be implemented effectively from 1977
onward since public education spending barely increased between 1970 and
1975.
The drafting of Article 27 of the 1978 Constitution, devoted to education, was a conflictive process and the final agreement entailed significant renounces from all political sides. The socialist party firmly defended the role of the state in education. The centre-right parties, on the other hand, defended public funding for private education and the freedom to choose the schools you wanted. Ultimately, both principles were incorporated into Article 27 with equal legal status. As Puelles (2002) points out, a basic agreement was achieved, but not a political one. In the absence of an overarching educational pact, it will be the parliamentary majority that will tilt the legislation towards one or the other option. This is what has happened so far.
The first law regulating the School Statute, the 1980 LOECE, was passed without political consensus. The opposition challenged it before the Constitutional Court. Its ruling of 13 February 1981 annulled those relevant articles that restricted participation, parents´ associations in schools and academic freedom. Although it was published in the Official State Gazette (BOE) on 27 June 1980, the law was neither revised nor redrafted and was therefore never in force.
The Socialist Party’s large parliamentary majority achieved one year later paved the way for the drafting of a new law that replaced the LOECE: the LODE The law stated in its preamble its intention to respect both educational pluralism and equity. It also emphasized that the regulation of the two networks of schools, public and state-funded private, should be based on two fundamental principles, planning and participation. These facilitate a balanced exercise of the right to education and the freedom of teaching.
To regulate private schools, the law established a system of agreements (the Education concerts) through which public funding was provided to private schools. One of its most innovative elements was that teachers´ salaries would be paid directly by the Administration as a delegate payment on behalf of the school’s governing body (Article 49.5).
Regarding participation and school governance, the law established the School Council as the body representing all sectors of the educational community. Among its functions was the election of the school principal. In state-funded private schools, the headmaster was to be appointed by agreement between the school’s owner and the School Council.
The LODE faced strong opposition from the private education sector, especially religious school organizations. They believed the law aimed to eliminate the freedom to teach and their rights to operate schools. The conflict eased when the Spanish Episcopal Conference through the president of its Commission on Education, Archbishop of Zaragoza Elías Yanes, recommended religious schools to sign educational agreements with the government
The basic structure of the LODE—planning, financing of private education and participation—has remained in place for over 40 years. However, Puelles (2016) questions its stability as it has been modified under Popular Party governments, although its original orientation was later restored under the existing socialist administrations.
The PSOE’s victory in the October 1982 elections
gave way to a new dynamic for addressing the reform of Secondary
Education, based mainly on experimentation and the voluntary
participation of teachers. The proposed model was organized into two
cycles: one with a common curriculum from ages 14 to 16 and another from
16 to 18 with six types of
Baccalaureate
In 1986, the OECD published a report on Spanish educational policy (1986). Its main conclusions highlighted the enormous effort in expanding school since 1977, but also significant shortcomings in terms of available school places, the quality of teaching, the value given to vocational training, and the percentage of students completing each educational stage. These conclusions may have led Minister Maravall to form a new team in the Ministry to drive a complete educational reform of the education system (universities excluded).
His work was overwhelmed by the strike and demonstration of secondary education students, demanding better teaching conditions and the abolition of the university entrance exam. After complicated negotiations, an agreement was reached with student associations that allowed a return to academic normality.
Once the student strike was over, the Ministry of Education and
Science (MEC) presented the “
The process of debate and participation was widely disrupted by a teachers’ strike during much of the 1987–1988 academic year and ended without resolving the conflict with the Ministry of Education. In June of that year, José María Maravall was replaced as Minister of Education by Javier Solana.
At the beginning of the 1988–1989 academic year, Solana reaches a broad agreement with the teachers´ unions. In the first months of that school year, the Minister consulted with institutions, teachers and experts on the opportunity and feasibility of the reform. In January 1989, in a meeting between the Minister of Education and the Ministers of those Autonomous Communities that had jurisdiction over Education and different political visions (Basque Country, Catalonia, Galicia, Andalusia, Valencian Community, and Canary Islands), a highly significant agreement was reached expressing their support to the general directions of the reform project.
The
Achieving this broad political and social support for the LOGSE required continuous negotiation. The agreement reached with CIU and PNV on the distribution of responsibilities over curriculum development with autonomous communities was highly relevant. So was the agreement with the teaching colleges and their students, universities, and teachers’ unions. The decision to eliminate 7th and 8th grades of General Basic Education (EGB)—taught by primary school teachers—and transform them into 1st and 2nd years of ESO—taught by university graduates—meant eliminating the upper cycle of EGB and consequently limiting the employment options of primary school teachers. The final agreement stated that to become a primary education teacher it was required to have a specific teaching degree a requirement that previously did not exist. It also established three new primary teacher specializations (English, music and physical education) and supported the integration of old teaching schools into the Faculties of Education within the universities.
The LOGSE had a wide range of ambitious objectives. The first and
most important was to extend compulsory and free education up to the age
of 16 establishing a specific stage of Compulsory Secondary Education
from ages 12 to 16. Other goals were to give special
importance to Early Childhood Education from the first months to the age
of six; to transform vocational training making it an attractive choice
to students attached to the labour
The LOGSE included some proposals to make more flexible the principle of comprehensive education take into account the existing diversity of students by elective subjects which have more weight during this stage (Article 21.2), and curriculum diversification programs to allow students to achieve the ESO diploma through subjects and methodologies different from those established in the general model (Article 23.1). According to data from the Ministry of Education and Science (2004, p.53), 6.4% of students in the 3rd and 4th years of ESO followed diversification programs in the 2001–2002 academic year, and about 75% obtained the diploma.
Critics close to the Popular Party argued strongly that comprehensive
education up to the age of 16 led students into mediocrity and resulted
in a decline in academic standards. Therefore, they advocated for a
stage of compulsory secondary education from ages 12 to 15 and a
three-year Baccalaureate
The implementation of the reform introduced by the LOGSE faced significant challenges. The most complex was adapting Secondary Schools and Vocational Training institutes and their teaching staff, including those who previously taught 7th and 8th grades of EGB, to the new educational stages established by the law.
The reform process promoted by the LOGSE was not easy to manage in
part due to the lack of stability among school leadership teams. In the
1991–92 academic year, only 47% of public schools in autonomous
communities still managed by the Ministry of Education selected their
principals by the decision of their school council. This meant that 53%
of principals had to be appointed directly by the educational
administration, although such appointments were limited to a one-year
term, as established by the LODE in
1985
Faced with these difficulties, the Ministry of Education deemed it
necessary to strengthen participation, leadership, and educational
supervision while promoting initiatives to improve the quality and
attractiveness of public schools. With these objectives in mind, the
document entitled
The main change involved was the process to select school principals
and leadership teams
The law also included proposals to improve school autonomy, participation, and evaluation. However, with the election of a new government in 1996, there was a shift toward quality management models (EFQM). The decentralization of educational administration to all autonomous communities, together with the establishment of general diagnostic evaluations, contributed to the gradual disappearance of comprehensive assessment of school performance (Tiana, 2018).
Alongside legislative changes, the Ministry of Education launched
specific initiatives to enhance the quality of public education. One of
the most significant was the bilingual education program in public
schools, implemented through a partnership between the Ministry of
Education and Science and the British Council. This initiative involved
the inclusion of native English-speaking teachers and enabled students
to obtain dual academic qualifications from both countries during
compulsory education
The LOE was approved in 2006
The process followed in its elaboration was similar to that of the
LOGSE: presenting an initial document titled
One of the most significant elements of this process was the attempt to reach an agreement with all social sectors and also between PSOE and PP to avoid legislative changes every time there was an alternation in government. Partial agreement was not achieved which included only the different educational stages (Tiana, 2007, p.97).
The main goals of this law were to recover the spirit and much of the content of the LOGSE and to address those problems that had emerged during the implementation of that law. Two of its main points of reference were the European Union’s education objectives from the year 2000 onward and the OECD’s competency-based approaches.
Among the most significant changes were the guiding nature of the fourth year of ESO, which allowed grouping subjects into different options while avoiding the separate academic tracks as established by the LOCE for the 3rd and 4th years; the reinstatement of the curricular diversification programs established in the LOGSE from 3rd year of ESO onwards leading to the ESO diploma; the creation of Professional Qualification Programs, which included modules related to units of competence corresponding to Level 1 qualifications in the National Catalogue of Professional Qualifications, as well as other voluntary modules for obtaining the ESO diploma; access to Vocational Training for students who, without the required diploma, pass an entrance exam; the reference to basic competencies in the curriculum model; and the inclusion in the section on educational equity of a chapter dedicated to students with specific educational support needs.
While this law (LOE) was in operation, collaboration with educational regional administrations was effectively developed to reduce educational inequalities. A good example is the Support, Guidance, and Reinforcement Plan (PROA), aimed at providing academic support several days a week to students with learning difficulties, as well as promoting collaboration with families. The results of its evaluation (Manzanares Molla and Ulla Diez, 2012) show a broadly positive evaluation
The LOMCE approved in 2013 was the second law (after LOCE) enacted by the Popular Party to revoke perceived errors of the LOE and attempt to improve student learning outcomes. The Popular Party’s absolute majority victory in the 2011 elections enabled the law to be passed only with their votes.
The law involved hardly any public debate or attempts to reach
consensus with other political groups, not even those ideologically
close to the ruling party. This led to sign a joint agreement of the
vast majority of political parties when a different parliamentary
majority made it possible
The main goals of the LOMCE were to support private education and
those state-funded private schools and to favour a policy of
differentiation and selecting students The first of these is evident in
the modification of article 109.2 of the LOE ("
The second objective is mainly reflected in the structure of compulsory secondary education (ESO). At the 4th year, two different academic routes are offered: one leads to the Baccalaureate and the other to the Vocal Training. This dual pathway concludes with an external final assessment, the passing of which is a requirement to obtain the diploma and to continue either Baccalaureate or Vocational Training studies. Its educational value is difficult to understand because restricts the educational progression of pupils with difficulties. Finally, the Popular Party’s loss of its absolute majority in 2016 together with the pressure from the education and political community led to the elimination of external assessment as a requirement for obtaining the ESO and Baccalaureate diplomas.
The law eliminates the Curricular Diversification Programs that led to the ESO diploma and replaces them with the Learning and Performance Improvement Programs (PMAR). The differences are significant: PMAR appears as early as in the 2nd year of ESO and does not directly lead to getting the diploma but to enrol in the fourth year of ESO after taking one of the two tracks available. Can students who have followed these programs - arguably less demanding than the regular 2nd and 3rd-year courses of ESO- pass 4th year and then succeed in the final external exam?
A new pathway is also established to facilitate the progress of students with greater difficulties starting at age 12: the Basic Vocational Training cycle. Completion of these cycles does not grant students the ESO diploma, but only access to Intermediate-Level Vocational Training.
The law passed in 2020, the LOMLOE, is essentially a motion of
censure against the LOMCE. Its main reference point is the LOE, although
with a stronger emphasis on equality policies and fewer concessions to
subsidized schools, largely explained by the presence of the political
party Unidas Podemos in the government and in
parliament
Its articles establish education planning as a priority and provide clear support for public education, while also reassuring equity by embracing an inclusive perspective within the education system.
To prevent students from dropping out this model of comprehensive education includes three initiatives the fourth year of ESO has a guiding character through the clustering of subjects according to various options leading either to the different modalities of the Baccalaureate or to Vocational Training; the two-year curricular diversification programs leading to the ESO diploma are reinstated, and the PMARs program of the LOMCE are consequently eliminated; and Basic Vocational Training cycles are established, the successful completion of which leads to both the ESO diploma and the Basic Technician title in the corresponding professional specialty.
The law deepens the development of a competency-based curriculum and
opens the door to a change in curricular structure, which is more
clearly reflected in subsequent Royal
Decrees
It must be acknowledged that the LOMLOE builds on the experience of
the LOE, with the parenthesis of the LOMCE, so the changes do not
represent a major shift in the organization and structure of the
education system. Perhaps for this reason, its rapid implementation can
be excused
It must be emphasized that the changes occurred during these 50 years have been enormously positive, both in the field of education and in economic and social progress. The starting point was a significant gap with most European countries due to the neglect of education during the dictatorship, but in recent decades these differences have been substantially reduced. Contrary to the pessimistic view of certain social sectors, which claim that the education system functioned better in the past and that students learned more, the available data clearly show that any past time was worse.
This statement does not prevent us from also highlighting that the challenges facing education are now more demanding than in the past due to rapid social and technological changes, greater diversity among students in classrooms, and broader educational objectives.
The article by Enrique Roca on educational data in this Monograph offers a systematic and comprehensive overview of the progress made during these five decades. For this reason, only a brief summary of the most relevant data will be presented here to conclude this text.
GDP per capita is a key indicator. It has increased from €438 (1970) to €30,968 in 2023. This growth also shows notable differences between autonomous communities: from €42,198 in the Community of Madrid to €23,218 in Andalusia (INE, 2024). These interterritorial income disparities are closely linked to those observed in education.
Public spending on education has followed an upward trend from 1975 (2.5%) to 2022 (4.62%). The highest figure was reached in 2009 (5.02%), dropped to 4.18% in 2018, and recovered in subsequent years. Compared to other EU countries, Spain’s position has improved relative to the past, but it still lags behind the European average.
School enrollment has improved at all educational stages. In 2022, the percentage of children enrolled in early childhood education was 42% for those under age 3, and 92% for those aged 3 to 6—figures above the EU and OECD averages. The percentage of 17-year-olds enrolled in school rose from 63.6% in 1990 to 90.4% in the 2022–2023 academic year.
The gross graduation rate from ESO (Compulsory Secondary Education) increased from 73.4% in the 1999–2000 school year to 81.6% in 2022–2023. This slow progress is hampered by a high repetition rate—22% in 2022–2023—higher than in most European countries, although it was 43% in 1994–1995. The most notable change is seen in the early school leaving rate, which fell from 40.4% in 1992 to 31% in 2005 and to 13% in 2024. The EU average dropped from 15.6% in 2005 to 9.5% in 2023.
Student performance in the PISA assessments has gradually aligned with the participant average, although with slight backwardness in some years. The most critical voices argue that not reaching the average score is proof of a failing education system—an argument not supported by PISA evidence. Other studies have shown no significant difference from the PISA average (Carabaña, 2009) and point out that several autonomous communities achieve results comparable to those of the highest-performing countries.
It must be emphasized that the changes occurred during these 50 years have been enormously positive, both in the field of education and in economic and social progress. The starting point was a significant gap with most European countries due to the neglect of education during the dictatorship, but in recent decades these differences have been substantially reduced. Contrary to the pessimistic view of certain social sectors, which claim that the education system functioned better in the past and that students learned more, the available data clearly show that any past time was worse.
This statement does not prevent us from also highlighting that the challenges facing education are now more demanding than in the past due to rapid social and technological changes, greater diversity among students in classrooms, and broader educational objectives.
The article by Enrique Roca on educational data in this Monograph offers a systematic and comprehensive overview of the progress made during these five decades. For this reason, only a brief summary of the most relevant data will be presented here to conclude this text.
GDP per capita is a key indicator. It has increased from €438 (1970) to €30,968 in 2023. This growth also shows notable differences between autonomous communities: from €42,198 in the Community of Madrid to €23,218 in Andalusia (INE, 2024). These interterritorial income disparities are closely linked to those observed in education.
Public spending on education has followed an upward trend from 1975 (2.5%) to 2022 (4.62%). The highest figure was reached in 2009 (5.02%), dropped to 4.18% in 2018, and recovered in subsequent years. Compared to other EU countries, Spain’s position has improved relative to the past, but it still lags behind the European average.
School enrollment has improved at all educational stages. In 2022, the percentage of children enrolled in early childhood education was 42% for those under age 3, and 92% for those aged 3 to 6—figures above the EU and OECD averages. The percentage of 17-year-olds enrolled in school rose from 63.6% in 1990 to 90.4% in the 2022–2023 academic year.
The gross graduation rate from ESO (Compulsory Secondary Education) increased from 73.4% in the 1999–2000 school year to 81.6% in 2022–2023. This slow progress is hampered by a high repetition rate—22% in 2022–2023—higher than in most European countries, although it was 43% in 1994–1995. The most notable change is seen in the early school leaving rate, which fell from 40.4% in 1992 to 31% in 2005 and to 13% in 2024. The EU average dropped from 15.6% in 2005 to 9.5% in 2023.
Student performance in the PISA assessments has gradually aligned with the participant average, although with slight backwardness in some years. The most critical voices argue that not reaching the average score is proof of a failing education system—an argument not supported by PISA evidence. Other studies have shown no significant difference from the PISA average (Carabaña, 2009) and point out that several autonomous communities achieve results comparable to those of the highest-performing countries.
Although the substantial improvements in education are discussed in an article focused on education laws, it is important to underline that legislation alone explains only part of the positive changes described. The progress achieved must be attributed primarily to the value that families and society as a whole have placed on the education of younger generations, to the collective effort of broad social sectors to improve education, and to the dedication, competence, and adaptability of teachers in responding to new and ever-changing social and educational conditions.
Alonso Carmona, C., García-Arnau, A. y Vázquez-Cupeiro, S. (2023).
¿Qué es desigualdad educativa? Divergencias y continuidades en las
grandes reformas educativas en España.
Bruna, F., Rungo, P. y Alló, M. (2022).
Carabaña, J. (2013). Crecimiento del Bachillerato e igualdad desde
los años ochenta.
Carabaña, J. (2009). Los debates sobre las reformas de las
enseñanzas medias y los efectos de estas en el aprendizaje.
Cobreros, L. y Gortázar, L. (2023).
Egido, I. (2022). La reforma del currículo para responder a los retos
del futuro. España en perspectiva internacional.
European Commission (2020).
Fernández Mellizo-Soto, M. (2022).
Ferrer, A. y Gortázar, L. (2021).
Gortázar, L. (2025).
Gortázar, L., Martínez, A. y Bonal X. (2024).
INE. 2024.
Jover, G., Ponce, D.P. and González-García, R. (2024).
Historical-political background of the agreement establishing the
Spanish-British integrated curriculum.
Lahire, B. (2003). Los orígenes de la desigualdad escolar. En A.
Marchesi y C. Hernández Gil (coord.).
Ley 14/1970 General de Educación y Financiamiento de la Reforma Educativa. «BOE» núm. 187, de 6 de agosto de 1970, páginas 12525 a 12546. https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1970-852
Ley Orgánica 5/1980 por la que se regula el Estatuto de Centros Escolares, BOE, 27 de junio. https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1980-13661
Ley Orgánica 8/1985, de 3 de julio, reguladora del Derecho a la Educación, BOE, 4 de julio. https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1985-12978
Ley Orgánica 1/1990, de 3 de octubre, de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo. BOE, nº 238, de 4 de octubre de 1990. https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1990/10/04/pdfs/A28927-28942.pdf
Ley Orgánica 9/1995, de 20 de noviembre, de la Participación, la
Evaluación y el Gobierno de los Centros Docentes
Ley Orgánica 2/2006, de 3 de mayo, de Educación. Boletín Oficial del Estado, nº 106, de 5 de mayo de 2006. https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2006/BOE-A-2006-7899-consolidado.pdf
Ley Orgánica 8/2013, de 9 de diciembre, para la mejora de la calidad educativa. Boletín Oficial del Estado, nº 295, de 10 de diciembre de 2013. https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2013/BOE-A-2013-12886-consolidado.pdf
Ley Orgánica 3/2020, de 29 de diciembre, por la que se modifica la Ley Orgánica 2/2006, de 3 de mayo, de Educación. Boletín Oficial del Estado, nº 340, de 30 de diciembre de 2020. https://www.boe.es/buscar/pdf/2020/BOE-A-2020-17264-consolidado.pdf
López Rupérez, F., García García, I., & Expósito-Casas, E.
(2021). La repetición de curso y la graduación en Educación Secundaria
Obligatoria en España. Análisis empíricos y recomendaciones políticas.
Marchesi A. (2020). La LOGSE en la educación española. Breve relato
de un cambio histórico,
Marchesi. A. y Martín, E. (1998).
Marchesi, A. y Pérez, E.M. (2018).
Martín, E. y Gómez, C. (2017). Las expectativas parentales no
explican el rendimiento escolar.
MEC (1969). La educación en España. Bases para una política educativa. Madrid, MEC.
MEC (1981).
MEC (1985).
MEC (1987).
MEC (1988).
MEC (1989).
MEC (1994):
MEC (2004).
OCDE
OECD (2011),
OCDE (2023a). PISA 2022.
OCDE. (2023b).
O’Malley, Pamela (1992): “La Alternativa”,
Pedró, F. (2012). Políticas públicas sobre apoyo y refuerzo
educativo: evidencias internacionales.
Pérez Galán, Mariano (1992): La Ley General de Educación y el
movimiento de enseñantes,
Puelles, M. de. (2002). El pacto escolar constituyente: génesis,
significación y situación actual.
Puelles, M. de. 2016. Reflexiones sobre cuarenta años de educación en
España o la irresistible seducción de las leyes,
Soria, J. (2022).
Tarabini, A. y Montes, A. (2005). La agenda política contra el
abandono escolar prematuro en España: la LOMCE contra las evidencias
internacionales.
Tiana, A. (2007). A la búsqueda del consenso en educación: la
experiencia de la LOE.
Tiana, A. (2016).
Tiana, A. (2018). Treinta años de evaluación de centros educativos en
España.
Viñao, A. (1996). La ley Pertierra ¿continuidad, cambio o
rectificación? En
Viñao, A. (2016). La Ley Orgánica de Mejora de la Calidad Educativa
(LOMCE) de 2013: ¿una reforma más?
Información de contacto / Contact info: Álvaro Marchesi. Universidad Complutense de Madrid. E-mail: amarches@psi.ucm.es